Return to Training Resource Center
National Weather Service Training Center
Hydrometeorology & Management Division
|
Application of Adult Learning Concepts to Training |
1. Introduction
Most of us remember sitting in a lecture listening to an instructor telling us about some subject for an hour or
so, taking a short break, and then continuing the lecture for another hour or so. How well did we learn the material
covered during this lecture? How much of this material do we remember today? The most likely answer to both questions
is "little".
The situation just described did not take into consideration "how adults learn". The purpose of this
paper is to describe adult learning concepts, relate these concepts to practical adult training, and discuss how
lessons can be structured to make good use of adult learning concepts.
2. Adult Learner Classification
A study of adult learners grouped the participants into three broad classification patterns:
Goal-Oriented Adult Learners: Those learners who seek education in order to accomplish a specific
goal or clear-cut objective.
The knowledge, skill or attitude learned by these adult learners must be put to use immediately. The learner has
a clear-cut purpose for seeking training and is highly motivated to learn and complete the training. Individual
training sessions may be relatively short but are ever-recurring during the learner's life time.
Activity-Oriented Adult Learners: Those learners who seek the educational activity for reasons having
no connection with the announced purpose of the educational activity.
For these adult learners education, in many instances, is used as an escape mechanism. There is often a socio-emotional
need that is satisfied by attending training. The professional student also falls into this category. Just completing
an educational or training activity and obtaining a certificate is important in and of itself.
Learner-Oriented Adult Learners: Those learners who seek knowledge "for the sake of knowledge"
or purely for the desire to know.
The adult learners tend to be avid readers. They possess a continuity and range of experience that makes participation
more than the sum of its parts. Education is a constant, not a continuing activity for these individuals.
Any one adult learner will fall into all of these categories at some time during their life. Where he/she is at
any one moment depends upon the type of training, perhaps the time of day the session is offered, if attendance
is required, the cost, and other factors.
3. Adult Learning Concepts
The description of adult learning concepts varies somewhat from author to author but there are many commonalities.
Listed below are seven adult learning principles based on a combination of those given by Knowles (1990), Mitchell
(1993), and Pike (1994). The adult learning principles as outlined by these authors are given in Appendix A.
a. Adults need to know why they should learn something and must be ready to learn.
b. An adult learner's experience is a valuable resource for additional learning.
c. Adult learners tend to focus on life-centered, task-centered, or problem-centered learning activities.
d. Adult learners learn best when they practice, perform and work with new knowledge, skills and attitudes.
e. Adult learners learn easiest what they have some familiarity with.
f. Adult learners favor different senses for learning.
g. Adult learners like to be self-directing and see their own progress during a learning experience.
4. Application to Training
How can these adult learning principles be applied to training sessions? Let's examine each one separately.
Adults need to know why they should learn something and must be ready to learn. This principle tells
us that we need to provide a practical reason why the trainee should pay attention to the lesson. This reason must
be stated at the beginning of the lesson, as part of the introduction, and relate the lesson content to their job.
As will be mentioned in the section on lesson structure, the introduction to lesson is the most important part
of a lesson. As an instructor you need to set the stage for the entire lesson in the first five minute. Similarly,
adults need to recognize that there is a gap between what they know and what they need to know. With recognition
comes a readiness to fill that gap through a learning activity.
An adult learner's experience is a valuable resource for additional learning. If trainees have some
experience with the lesson topic, it is good to have them share these experiences with the rest of the group. Because
these experiences may be different from your experience, both you and the other students learn something new. Rejecting
an adult learner's experience is equivalent to rejecting the adult as a person. This sharing process also helps
to establish a good learning environment and enhances the "readiness to learn" mentioned in the first
principle.
Adult learners tend to focus on life-centered, task-centered, or problem-centered learning activities. This
principle tells us that adults want get something practical from their training sessions. That is, they want to
be able to take what they learn back to their job or their personal life and use it as soon as possible. This statement
tells us that if concepts and principles are discussed, they should be followed by practical exercises or case
studies that illustrate the concept or principle.
Adult learners learn best when they practice, perform and work with new knowledge, skills and attitudes.
Retention and understanding of new knowledge, skills and attitudes is best accomplished by using them over and
over. There is a limit to the number of times something can be repeated during a lesson, but if a new ideas can
be used and repeated through practical exercises or case studies, the probability of retention and understanding
goes up.
Adult learners learn easiest what they have some familiarity with. This principle tells us that we
should start with something familiar to the student and expand into new areas as the lesson progresses, eventually
arriving at the objective of the lesson. The idea of building on established knowledge and skills is important.
Lesson material must be sequenced properly to make this happen.
Adult learners favor different senses for learning. Studies have shown that some adults are visual
learners, some are auditory learners, some are kinesthesic (or hands-on) learners, while other learn best through
some combination of these. This fact means that an instructor should use a variety of delivery methods to ensure
that all learners' optimum learning medium is used at some point during the lesson.
Adult learners like to be self-directing and see their own progress during a learning experience.
It would be nice to allow students to select the topics they would like to have in a course. This approach, however,
is not practical in most cases. Nevertheless, instructors need to recognize and respect the learners' need for
self-direction. In many cases, instructors become facilitators rather then teachers. They must also avoid "talking
down" to students. Similarly, adult learners like to feel that they are learning something during a training
session. This feeling can be achieved through exercises and short oral reviews intermingled throughout the lesson.
These exercises and short quizzes challenge students and allow them to check their ability to understand the material.
These type of activities also allow the instructor to see if students have gained some understanding of the topic.
5. Adult Attention Span and Retention
Research studies have suggested that the average adult can "listen with understanding" for approximately
90 minutes, and "listen with retention" for approximately 20 minutes. The length of the latter observation
varies somewhat with the intelligence level of the individual. Generally, the lower the intelligence level, the
shorter is the "listen with retention" period.
Pike (1994) suggests the 90/20/8 rule: "No module we teach ever runs more than ninety minutes, the
pace is changed at least every twenty minutes, and we try to find a way to involve people in the content
every eight minutes."
Retention can also be increased with redundancy. The idea of overview, teach, and review, when built into a lesson's
structure, helps students retain material longer. Pike (1994) cites a study that concludes that "if people
were exposed to an idea one time, at the end of 30 days they retained less than 10 percent. But if they were exposed
to an idea six times, with interval reinforcement, at the end of 30 days they retained more than 90 percent. Interval
reinforcement means that an idea was presented once and then reviewed perhaps ten minutes later, an hour later,
a day later, three days later, a week later, two weeks later, three week later."
For a given lesson, the concept of "interval reinforcement" cannot be carried out to its fullest extent,
but the overview, teach, review approach does provide some of this redundancy and should increase overall retention.
If the material from one lesson can be reinforced or used in later lessons, all the better.
6. Lesson Structure
Let's take the ideas just discussed and establish some rules that can be applied to a lesson's structure.
a. Each lesson should have an introduction that includes an attention getter, an self-introduction (if necessary),
the lesson topic, a motivational statement, a list of lesson objectives, and a lesson overview. Appendix B provides
a more detailed discussion of what can be covered in an introduction.
b. The method of delivery should be changed every 15 to 20 minutes.
c. Lessons should be designed to include some type of student participation approximately every eight to ten minutes
during the lesson.
d. Numerous exercises and case studies should be used to illustrate new ideas and to practice application of these
ideas to job-centered tasks.
e. Lesson material should be structured so that it moves from easy material to difficult material or from the known
to the unknown.
f. Oral reviews or short exercises should be used during lesson segments to check for understanding of lesson material.
g. Each major point in the lesson should be covered three times: once in the lesson overview (part of the introduction);
once during the body of the presentation; and once during the lesson consolidation. The consolidation is discussed
in detail in Appendix C.
7. An Example
Let's apply the above rules to a lesson on Mesoscale Convective System (MCS) Propagation. The outline below illustrates
how a lesson plan might look with these ideas included. See if you can identify the application of the seven rules
listed in Section 5 in the various sections of the lesson.
----------------------------------------------------------------
I. Introduction ( 5 minutes )
Flip on the overhead with an appropriate cartoon
Welcoming statement
Self-introduction (also listed on the board)
Statement of the lesson topic (also listed on the board)
Motivational statement on the importance of "MCS Propagation"
Statement of lesson objective (and main conclusions of
the lesson)
Overview of the lesson content (list main topics on the board)
[ distribute handout ]
Statement of ground rules (when to ask questions, lesson
length, etc.)
II. Body of the Lesson
A. Segment 1: Definitions ( 10 minutes )
[ segment introduction ]
[ lecture using overhead slides ]
Define MCS
Characteristics of an MCS
Types of MCSs, including MCC
[ oral quiz using overhead slides ]
Show satellite images to illustrate MCS types and
ask students what they are seeing
[ oral review of main points from this segment ]
[ check off segment on topic list on board ]
B. Segment 2: MCS Propagation ( 20 minutes )
[ segment introduction ]
[ question for students
- list answer on flip chart board ]
How do you determine which way thunderstorms move?
Link to MCS movement
[ lecture using overhead slides ]
Definition of propagation
Emphasis on "most active portion"
Illustration of "most active portion"
Four types of propagation
Vector relationship of wind direction, MCS movement,
and propagation
[ exercise on vector relationship ]
[ oral review of main points from this segment ]
[ check off segment on topic list on board ]
C. Segment 3: Merrit and Fritsch ( 5 minutes )
[ segment introduction ]
[ lecture using overhead slides ]
850-300 mb thickness and movement
Where to find thickness chart
[ oral quiz using overhead slides ]
Show 850-300 mb thickness and ask about
expected movement
Show actual example
[ oral review of main points from this segment ]
[ check off segment on topic list on board ]
D. Segment 4: Juying and Scofield (15 minutes)
[ segment introduction ]
[ discuss features of four propagation types from
student handout ]
Satellite, surface and upper air features of:
Slow forward propagating MCSs
Fast forward propagating MCSs
Regeneration MCSs
Backward propagating MCSs
[ oral quiz and illustration using overhead slides ]
Show actual examples of propagation types
Ask students before each example how they will move
[ oral review of main points from this segment ]
[ check off segment on topic list on board ]
----- 10 minute break -----
E. Segment 5: Funk and Moore ( 10 minutes )
[ segment introduction ]
[ lecture using overhead slides ]
Funk result
Moore's synoptic environment summary
[ oral review of main points from this segment ]
[ check off segment on topic list on board ]
F. Segment 6: Case Study ( 10 minutes )
[ short case study to bring everything together ]
[ concluding comments on the case study ]
III. Consolidation ( 5 minutes )
Restatement of the main points of the lesson
Restatement of the motivational need for this information
Bridge to the next lesson
----------------------------------------------------------------
8. Concluding Remarks
This lesson has reviewed adult learning concepts and developed a series of rules that apply these concepts to typical
adult training sessions. It is important to incorporate these ideas into a lesson during the design of that lesson.
It takes time and effort to do this but the payoff, improved student understanding and retention, is worthwhile.
References
Knowles, Malcom, 1990: The Adult Learner, The Neglected Species. Gulf Publishing Co., Houston, 292 pp.
Mitchell, Garry. 1993: The Trainer's Handbook, The AMA Guide to Effective Training, 2nd Edition. AMACOM, New York,
423 pp.
Pike, Robert W., 1994: Creative Training Techniques Handbook, Tips, Tactics, and How-To's for Delivering Effective
Training. Lakewood Books, 197 pp.
Review Questions and Exercises
Use the following questions to review the content of this lesson.
(1) Match the following adult learner classification with one of its characteristics:
_____ Goal-Oriented A. Avid reader.
_____ Activity-Oriented B. Clear-cut objective.
_____ Learner-Oriented C. Socio-emotional fulfillment.
(2) Which of the following items are characteristic of adult learners? [ more than one answer possible ]
Adult learners ...
_____ Don't care why they need to learn something
_____ Have topic-related experiences to share with other students
_____ Tend to focus on life-centered learning activities
_____ Learn best when they practice new skills
_____ Learn new material easily
_____ Learn best by listening
_____ Like to direct their own learning
(3) The average adult can "listen with understanding" for approximately _______ minutes.
(4) The average adult can "listen with retention" for approximately _______ minutes.
(5) During a lesson, the pace should be changed at least every _______ minutes.
(6) During a lesson, students should be involved with the lesson content every _______ minutes.
(7) If a student is exposed to an idea one time, at the end of 30 days that student will retain less than _______
percent.
(8) Interval reinforcement is best described as:
A. Restating an idea three times during a 3-hr lesson.
B. Repetition of an idea over an extended period of time to increase retention.
C. Placement of extra chairs at every third desk in every fourth classroom.
D. Replacement of 50 percent of every lecture with structured exercises.
(9) Which of the following apply adult learning concepts to a lesson? [ more than one answer possible ]
_____ A motivational statement in the lesson introduction
_____ A 50 minute lecture
_____ Minimal student involvement with lesson content
_____ Numerous exercises and case studies
_____ Lesson material moves from the known to the unknown
_____ There are no checks for understanding during a lesson
_____ Major points are mentioned three times during each lesson
[ Answers to the review questions are found in Appendix D ]
Complete the Following Exercise
Consider a lesson you have taught recently and outline how the seven rules described in Section 6 can be integrated
into that lesson?
Appendix A
Adult Learning Principles
Study #1
Knowles, Malcom, 1990: The Adult Learner, The Neglected Species. Gulf Publishing Co., Houston, 292 pp.
Pedagogy: the art and science of teaching children
Andragogy: the art and science of teaching adults
|
Pedagogy |
Andragogy |
|
| 1. The Need to Know Learners only need to know what the teacher teaches. 2. Learner's Self-Concept Teacher's concept of the learner is that of a dependent personality. 3. The Role of the Learner's Experience The learner's experience is of little worth as a resource for learning. 4. Readiness to Learn Learners become ready to learn if they want to pass and get promoted. 5. Orientation to Learning Learners have a subject-centered orientation to learning; they see learning as acquiring subject-matter content. 6. Motivation Learners are motivated to learn by external motivators. |
. Adults need to know why they need to learn something. . Adults have a self-concept of being responsible for their own decisions, i.e., self-directing. . For many kinds of learning the richest resource for learning resides in the adult learners themselves. . Adults become ready to learn those things they need to know or be able to do to cope effectively with their real-life situations. Adults are life-centered (or task-centered or problem-centered) in their orientation to learning. . While adults are responsive to some external motivators, the most potent motivators are internal pressures (e.g. job satisfaction, self-esteem, quality of life) |
Appendix B
Lesson Introduction
The "Introduction" is the most important part of a lesson. It sets the stage for the rest of the lesson
and prepares the students for learning. Lets examine some the things that might be included in a lesson introduction.
Attention Getter: * When a class starts the students are usually milling around, chatting with someone,
or even nodding off at their desk. You need to get their attention and divert them from the frivolity of the moment.
This may be as simple as a clap of the hand, a loud "Please take you seat", "ringing a cow bell",
or turning on the overhead with an appropriate cartoon. The objective is to get them to focus their attention on
you, so that you can start the lesson. Follow this action with a little small talk to set a relaxed atmosphere
in the room. (Talk about the weather?)
Introduce Yourself: * Even if the students know you, it is good practice to introduce yourself the first
time you meet with a group. You may want to tell them a little about yourself and your Weather Service background.
Topic: * Always start a new training session with a brief explanation of what the session will cover. This
opening will help the student focus attention on the topic at hand.
Motivational Statement: * Students are frequently tuned to WII-FM when a class starts, the very personal
What's In It For Me station. A motivational statement at the beginning of a lesson helps them tune into the lesson
topic instead. It tells the student why the lesson is important to them, what benefit they will get from the lesson,
and why they should pay attention during the lesson. Through motivational statements, a trainer sells the lesson
to the students. Motivational statements can be often critical to the overall success of a lesson, particularly
if students question their need to be there.
Relationship to Job: It is good to relate the lesson to the student's job and how the student will use the
material covered in the lesson. This can often be done by weaving the relationship into the motivational statements.
Link to Other Lessons: In the same way the lesson is related to a student's job, the lesson should be linked
to other lessons.
Objectives and Overview: * Always state the lesson objectives at the start of a lesson. The lesson goal
and objectives define what the lesson will focus on. When properly phrased, objectives clearly define the outcome
of the training and let the student know what will be expected of him/her. Objectives are a natural bridge to the
content of the lesson. An overview of the lesson topics can be used as the first tell 'em step, i.e., tell 'em
what you're gonna tell 'em. Here is an excellent opportunity to highlight the main points of the lesson.
Structure and Timing: Explaining the structure and timing of the training session will help students better
prepare themselves psychologically for the lesson. Explain how the session will be presented, how much time will
be spent on various topics, what will be expected from the students, whether there will be handouts or whether
they need to take notes, etc. Include anything that will help the student be more comfortable during the training
session.
Ground Rules: Ground rules include such things as safety rules and questions. Students like to know whether
they may ask questions during the lesson or whether they are expected to wait for a break or the end of the lesson.
Jargon, Acronyms, Technical Language: Every discipline has its set of jargon, acronyms, and technical terms.
Some of these terms may need to be defined up front or an acronym list handed out at the start of a class. In any
case, ensure that students know that they may interrupt you and ask for an explanation of unfamiliar terms as terms
arise during class.
Finished Product: Depending upon the content of the lesson, it is sometimes useful to show the students
what they are working toward, be it finished product or an example of the lesson goal.
Pre-Test: If there is a need to confirm the student's level of knowledge or skill on the lesson material,
the end of the "Introduction" is a good place to conduct a pre-test.
The items marked with a "*" should be included in every introduction. The sequence presented above is
also the recommended sequence for including these items in the introduction. A good introduction will take no more
than 5 to 10 minutes.
Appendix C
Lesson Consolidation
When the lesson is finished it is time to review what was covered during the lesson and bring the lesson to an
explicit conclusion. There needs to be a break between lessons so that individual topics can be properly started
and stopped. Listed below are some of the things that a typical "Consolidation" section contains.
Summary: A final summary should be used to draw together everything that has been said during the lesson.
Key points from the lesson should be emphasized, significant questions raised by the student can be highlighted,
application of the lesson material to the student's job could be mentioned, and any challenges that the lesson
offers to the students can be stated.
Level of Achievement: The lesson objectives should be restated and compared to what was covered in the lesson.
This process reinforces the original purpose for the lesson.
Praise: If good progress has been made during the lesson or difficult tasks were completed quickly, praise
this above average performance.
Reinforce the Motivational Message: Restate the motivational message that was stated at the beginning of
the lesson. Show again why the lesson was important to the student.
Look Forward to the Next Session: If there is another lesson to follow, offer a "bridge" from
the current lesson to the next one. This bridge will help with program continuity and keep adjoining lessons in
context.
Do Not Introduce New Material: The consolidation portion of a lesson is a concluding section for a lesson
and new material should not be introduced.
Do Not Ask Questions to Test Understanding: If a test or evaluation section is used during the lesson, do
it prior to the consolidation section. Use the consolidation section to tie up loose ends and bring the lesson
to closure, not to "test" the students.
Appendix D
Answers to the Review Questions
(1) Goal-Oriented: B
Activity-Oriented: C
Learner-Oriented: A
(2) The X'd items are characteristic of adult learners:
_____ Don't care why they need to learn something
__X__ Have topic-related experiences to share with other students
__X__ Tend to focus on life-centered learning activities
__X__ Learn best when they practice new skills
_____ Learn new material easily
_____ Learn best by listening
__X__ Like to direct their own learning
(3) 90 minutes
(4) 20 minutes
(5) 20 minutes
(6) 8 minutes
(7) 10 percent
(8) B
(9) The X'd items apply adult learning concepts:
__X__ A motivational statement in the lesson introduction
_____ A 50 minute lecture
_____ Minimal student involvement with lesson content
__X__ Numerous exercises and case studies
__X__ Lesson material moves from the known to the unknown
_____ There are no checks for understanding during a lesson
__X__ Major points are mentioned three times during each lesson