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National Weather Service Training Center
Hydrometeorology & Management Division

1. Introduction

The material covered in this chapter deals with specific training methods that may be useful for one-to-one training. The method selected will depend upon the lesson content. A glossary of other training methods is provided in Appendix A. Most of the material in this chapter has been extracted from Buckley and Caple (1991).

2. Demonstration Methods

The two methods described below can be used for demonstrating a variety of things in one-to-one training.

a. Sequence A

Sequence A would be useful for teaching someone a skill that requires manual dexterity. In some situations parts of this sequence may be more appropriate. For example, if you were teaching someone interview techniques, steps 1 and 4 would be useful. If you were teaching someone to fill in a form, steps 2 and 4 would be more appropriate.

b. Sequence B

The Sequence B can be used for teaching someone procedures on a computer screen.

3. Manual Tasks

Manual tasks are those that require a high level of manual dexterity. In the National Weather Service, training on manual tasks is mostly confined to those involved in the electronics and cooperative programs. Other than use of computers, there are few manual tasks done by the meteorological staff.

Training on manual tasks should make use of the human senses so that the trainee gets a good feel for what is expected prior to the end of the training. Many manual tasks involve a repetitive sequence that develops into a form of rhythm that can help the trainee more easily learn the proper task sequence. The trainer should be ready to provide guidance and constructive criticism as needed as the trainee performs and practices the manual task.

To accomplish the latter, the instructor must become proficient at critical observation of the trainee, analysis of what the trainee is doing with the aim of intervening as needed to tactfully correcting the trainee. A occasional word of praise or positive feedback is also appropriate as a motivator.

4. Procedural Skills

A procedure is a sequence of steps that must be followed to accomplish a task. These steps may be require a certain level of knowledge or have mental or physical skills associated with them. A procedure may be linear, that is, progress from one step to the next until the task is completed, or a procedure may have one or more decision points where the student will have to decide which branch of the procedure to follow next.

For short, simple, linear procedures, the following method of explanation and demonstration is recommended:

a. The instructor demonstrates the entire procedure and explains each step as it is done.
b. The instructor repeats the demonstration but has the trainee explain what actions are occurring.
c. The trainee demonstrates the procedure and explains what he/she is doing at each step.
d. The trainee demonstrates the procedure again so that the instructor can check for full mastery.

This method is a variation on Sequences A and B.

For longer or more complex linear procedures, the following method of explanation and demonstration is recommended:

a. The instructor provides an overview of the entire procedure.
b. The instructor demonstrates the first step and explains what is happening.
c. The instructor repeats the first step, and continues into the second step, explaining the second step as it is demonstrated.
d. The instructor repeats the first and second steps, then moves to the third step, explaining the third step as it is
demonstrated.

The instructor continues this "progressive parts" approach until the entire procedures is explained. It is sometimes appropriate to combine several simpler steps during this sequence, or address a more complex step individually before combining it with the entire sequence.

For procedures that have decision points, an overview of the entire procedure is a good starting point. After that the procedure should be broken up into segments for further instruction. The decision points within a procedure are good break points for the segments. An instructor can talk about the sequence of steps prior a decision point, or the steps between decision points. Depending upon whether the segments are simple or complex, the methods outlined above can be used for each segment. The information needed to make the decisions also needs to be covered at the appropriate point in the lesson. For more complex decision points, it is recommended that all segments be explained and demonstrated before discussing the decision points. It is easier for a person to make a more complex decision when they understand the steps that make up the alternative branches of the procedure.

5. Concepts and Principles

According to Buckley and Caple (1991) a concept is "a general idea or notion about a group or class of objects or events and can be defined verbally or symbolically, that is using mathematical notation, or diagrams". A principle (or rule of action) is several concepts linked together.

Buckley and Caple recommend the following learning tactics for concepts and principles:

a. "Where possible display the idea diagrammatically or in symbolic form." [ Break the idea into small understandable
parts and use diagrams to explain it. ]
b. "Present a range of examples and non-examples of the concept" [ This approach is particularly important if you want your
trainee to apply the material to the real world. ]
c. "Emphasize the links and relationships between related ideas."
d. "Ask the trainee to identify the similarities and differences between the new concept and other related ideas."
e. "Encourage the trainee to think and talk actively about the concept and what it means." [ Get some feedback from the
student to ensure that he/she understands the material. ]

An approach similar to the one just described has been used successfully at the NWSTC:

a. Explain the concept and its parts.
b. Illustrate the concept in terms of the real world examples. [ You may need several examples to cover the various aspects
of the concept. ]
c. Note any strengths or weaknesses of the practical application of the concept.
d. Have the trainee do an exercise using the concept, discuss the example, and provide feedback to the instructor.

Many of the topics covered in lessons on meteorology and hydrology are conceptual in nature. It is important to relate these concepts to operations at some point during the lesson.

6. Memory and Procedural Skills

The memorization of lesson material, in general, should be avoided, but there are times when students need to recall certain facts or procedures quickly and memorization is a necessary approach. In these situations there are several devices or methods that can help a student recall something.


a. Mnemonics

Mnemonics are a device such as a formula, rhyme, or word that helps a student remember something. For example, the word "IN" can be used to help WSR-88D users remember that "In-bound velocities are Negative".

b. Anecdotes

Anecdotes are personal stories or cautionary tales that help make a point about something. Students recall the humor or cautions easier than the facts alone. Personal stories about a topic can also help a student better relate the topic to their job.

c. Visual Aids and Job Aids

One-to-one or small group training often do not use projected visuals as part of a lesson. Nevertheless, visual aids can still be used to illustrate a point and can be used at a later time to help the student recall the proper procedures. Similarly, job aids are designed to be quick reference guides for students once they are back on the job. The student learns what needs to be learned in class but refers to the job aid for a quick reminder of how to do something, particularly something that is not done often.

7. Concluding Remarks

The training methods discussed in this chapter are useful for one-to-one training as practiced at a typical WFO or RFC. A glossary of additional training methods is contained in Appendix A.


Reference

Buckley, Roger, and Jim Caple, 1991: One-to-One Training and Coaching Skills. Pfeiffer & Company, San Diego, 1138 pp.
[ out of print ]

Review Questions and Exercises

Use the following questions to review the content of this lesson.

(1) Which demonstration sequence would be most appropriate for teaching someone a procedure on a computer screen ?

(2) What four characteristics should an instructor become proficient at if he/she is teaching manual tasks ?

(3) Are linear procedures and procedures with decision points taught in the same way ?

(4) What is the difference between a concept and a principle ?

(5) What is a job aid ?


Complete the Following Exercises

a. Create a mnemonic that will be useful at your station.

b. Briefly outline how you might teach the concept of geostrophic motion using the ideas presented in this
section.

Appendix A

Glossary of Instructional Methods

The material in this appendix was taken from a Padgett-Thompson seminar entitled "How to Train Adults".

Action Maze

A variation of the case study in which learners solve a problem or case by making decisions. The consequences of their decisions provide trainees with insight and feedback.

Action Plan

Brief variation of a learning contract which learners complete at the end of a training segment or session. Used to motivate learners to apply and follow through on the training. Generally, learners are asked to set specific goals to be achieved on the job.

Algorithm

A form of logic (presented as a chart) which leads learners through a series of decisions and actions to a logical conclusion. Algorithms can be used to diagnose problems through a series of questions with "yes" or "no" answers; depending upon answers to questions, learners are directed to various activities, actions, or decisions which lead to further questions.

Behavior Modeling

A desirable behavior is shown to the learners; the behavior can be demonstrated or role-played live or on videotape. The behavior is then analyzed and studied. Trainees try out and practice the behavior with guidance and feedback from the instructor and/or their peers.

Brainstorming

A free-wheeling technique to generate ideas. Groups are given a question or problem and asked to produce as many ideas as possible through creative, spontaneous flow of suggestions with no judgement or evaluation of the suggestions. Quantity is more important than quality. A more careful analysis of the ideas and their usefulness is postponed until later. Free-association is encouraged; ideas are written as they are called out.

Buzz Group

A large group is subdivided into units of six or fewer. All groups meet simultaneously for five to ten minutes to react to a topic, generate ideas or questions, discuss an issue, etc. Used to quickly share the ideas of a large group.

Case Study

A written or oral account of a situation which requires resolution is given to the learners. Either individually or in groups, the learners are asked to analyze the case and present recommendations. Used to apply learning in order to solve problems.

Coaching

A one-to-one process in which learning occurs via demonstration and practice followed by guidance and feedback. On the job, coaching is performed by the supervisor.

Colloquy

A modified version of a panel involving four to eight people. Half the panel represents the learners and the other half are resource people or experts. The learner representatives ask questions, raise issues, and make comments to which the experts respond.

Committee

A group of three to seven learners, drawn from a larger group, analyzes or investigates a problem or issue, reaches conclusions, and makes recommendations. There may be more than one committee working at the same time. Committees report back to the larger group. Allows in-depth study of various topics or problems in a shortened time frame.

Computer-Based Training

The learner receives instruction, makes responses, and receives feedback via interaction with a computer. Used for individualized instruction and to train learners who are geographically distant.

Conference

A method whereby group discussion is used to reach training objectives. The function of the instructor is to guide the discussion. The objective can be to better understand and apply principles or to find a solution. The learners may be able to choose from a number of different presentations available. Generally, the people at each session share a common problem or need.

Correspondence Course

A self-instructional course using prepared material that are sent to the learner. The learner does assignments and returns them to an instructor who reviews them. The corresponding is usually done through the mail.

Critical Incident

A variation of the case study in which learners are given incomplete data. By analyzing the case and asking the right questions, they are given the additional data needed to resolve the problem or situation.

Critique

Learners analyze the strengths and weaknesses of a subject, system, presentation, or proposal. They then make suggestions for improvements.

Debate

Two learners or teams of learners defend opposite sides of an issue. Learners alternate in presenting their arguments. The purpose is to explore all aspects of an issue; debates also emphasize competition, persuasion, and speaking skills.

Demonstration

Learners observe the performance of a task, operation, or procedure which demonstrates what something is, what is to be done, and/or how to do something. The demonstration may be live or pre-recorded. Used to make the explanation concrete and as a sensory reinforcement of learning in conjunction with a presentation. Often followed by performance or practice on the part of the learner.

Dialogue

Two individuals hold a conversation while learners observe. The individuals in dialogue may be resource people or selected learners and may either present opposing views, discuss the issue in an informed manner, or express feelings and opinions.

Discussion

A verbal exchange of ideas on a topic or problem of mutual interest. The discussion can be leaderless, led by a learner, or moderated by the instructor. Discussions are often initiated by the instructor through Socratic questioning.

Drill

A session of repetitive practice designed to increase efficiency, improve the quality of performance, or aid retention. Used particularly to teach repetitive motor or psychomotor skills which are intended to become "second nature".

Expanded Panel

This a panel with a vacant chair. Learners can temporarily take the vacant chair in order to participate in the panel discussion. When they have had their say, they vacate the chair so another learner can occupy it.

Field Trip

A carefully planned visit or tour to a site away from the training activity in order to observe activity, objects, or situations. Learners are taken to the environment where the task is performed. The trip should be preceded by a statement of objectives and purpose and followed by a debriefing. Learners may be given a set of questions for which answers may be found on the trip.

Fish Bowl

A modification of discussion in which a large group is divided into two or a multiple of two smaller groups. Groups form two circles. The "inner" circle discusses an issue or does an exercise while the "outer" circle observes and then offers observations or feedback.

Forum

Following a formal presentation, learners discuss and ask questions about the topic or about solutions to problems. They may ask questions of the speaker or discuss among themselves. For larger groups, a moderator may be needed.

Game

An exercise in which competition or cooperation (or both) are used to illustrate or practice principles. Usually intended to be fun, games incorporate rules, decisions, and time pressure. Games may have hidden agendas or purposes which are revealed after the game is complete.

In-Basket

Practice exercises that incorporate a set of tasks that will be faced on the job. Most commonly, prepared items are given to the learners as if arriving in their in-baskets. Such materials include letters, memos, reports, and telephone calls. Learners must prioritize, make decisions, and handle problems in order to get the workload completed within the time frame given. Learners are often prepared with policy manuals, procedures, position statements, organization charts, financial statements, and other background materials.

Instruments

Learners fill out questionnaires, self-profiles, checklists, etc., in order to gain insight, to explore a topic, or to assess learning, skills, problems, or situations.

Interview

Usually a 60-minute or less dialogue between an expert and learner. Learners are given an opportunity to interview and question a resource person. The interview can be conducted by someone else while the learners simply observe.

Job Aids

Various aids given to learners to assist them in doing their job after the completion of training. These include: worksheets, checklists, samples, flowcharts, procedural guides, glossaries, diagrams, decision tables, manuals, etc.

Laboratory

A training experience is developed which allows experimentation and testing by learners. This can be done for technical and scientific training in actual laboratories, but also for human relations, communications, and behavioral training.

Learner-Controlled Instruction

Resources are made available to the learner, who identifies the objectives, selects resources, sets up a program, and works through the program. A resource person is usually available as a guide.

Learning Contract

A learner decides what skills and knowledge they will learn. The learner determines the desired level of competency and, based on their goals and in assessment of their present competence, prepares a contract. Contracts specify the means by which the learner will close the gap between the present and the desired competence. Deadlines and milestones are built in. Upon completion, a new contract is created.

Lecture

An oral presentation in which the instructor or other speaker present facts, opinions, events, principles, or explanations. Used most often for orientation, directions, to introduce material, to explain basic concepts, and for illustration and review.

Listening Team

A group of learners assigned to listen to a speaker, take notes, prepare questions, and then summarize a session. They may also be asked to question the speaker. Several listening teams can focus on different aspects of the session and report their observations, conclusions, and/or recommendations.

Marathon

Learners stay in the learning environment for an extended time without interruption. Usually done in a secluded spot to minimize distractions and allow intense concentration on the objectives of the session. Usually reserved for interpersonal skills, personal learning, and self-assessment.

Mental Imagery

A process of relaxing and imagining yourself performing a task successfully. Repeated mental rehearsal is a supplement or replacement for actual practice. Mental imagery is also used for recall and as a stress-reduction technique.

Mini-Case

A modification of the case study in which a brief situation is described to the learners, who discuss how the case should be handled. Characterized by only key facts being presented and by brevity in discussion. Often used to give examples of situations and procedures.

Neighbor Discussions

A quick method to create participation and activity by learners. Learners are asked to speak to the person beside them for a few minutes to discuss an issue, answer a question, or generate questions to ask.

On-the-Job Training

Also called job instruction training. Consists of a formal systematic program for conducting training in the workplace; training is conducted by the supervisor. Includes apprentice-ships, practicums, and internships.

Panel

Three to ten people present their views, generally under the direction of a moderator, in front of an audience. Learners are encouraged to ask questions. A discussion among a group of experts takes place while learners observe. Used to explore issues, present differing points of view, or make use of special expertise.

Peer Training

Learners are trained by people who perform the job. Peer training has been found to increase the instructor's abilities as well as the learner's. Peer-assisted learning takes place under the guidance of a group leader. It is also used to give advanced learners an opportunity to help their less-advanced peers.

Programmed Learning

Self-study programs, usually printed, comprised of instructional material divided up into small segments. Learners complete a series of questions; answers are immediately provided. Used for remedial and make-up learning, highly motivated, and geographically distant learners.

Project Session

Learners receive an assignment that is the same as or similar to one they will perform on the job. Usually used to allow learners to practice new skills and apply related skills or processes that have not been taught. Projects can be assigned to individuals or groups and can include reading and research.

Quiz

A method of assessing learning or giving practice by filling out a questionnaire or test. Can also be oral. Usually scored with an established acceptable rating.

Reaction Team

A group of two to five learners is selected to react to a speaker's presentation by asking questions or making comments. Generally, the team is encouraged to interrupt to seek immediate clarification.

Reflection

Learners are given time alone to review and think about what has been learned, assess its applicability, or think about how to make it work in their setting.

Role Play

Learners act out or perform a dramatization of a situation in order to develop insight or apply what has been learned. Learners are given roles to play and usually the instructor provides the situation, opinions, agendas, and characterizations. Portrays human interaction. A number of role plays can be conducted in the same room at the same time or a role play can be demonstrated.

Seminar

A presentation by a subject matter expert. The seminar presenter also acts as a facilitator and resource person for attendees who participate in various instructional methods.

Simulation

An activity which captures the characteristics of a real situation or task. The training environment is set up to allow the learners to practice a task under very job-like conditions. Can be an equipment simulation or a situational simulation. Used particularly when actual performance and evaluation is costly, risky, or time-consuming.

Skit

A short dramatic presentation that is carefully prepared and rehearsed to illustrate principles or provide materials for analysis and discussion.

Slip Writing

A quick method of generating questions from learners by asking them to write questions down and pass them to the instructor. The instructor then reads all the questions to the group and either answers or refers questions back to the group.

Socratic Learning

A method by which the instructor covers course content by asking the group a series of questions which leads them to their own conclusions. Reversed, the learners are asked to generate and ask questions in order to learn about the subject.

STAG

A Self-Teaching Action Group (STAG) is a small group, usually three or four members, that takes responsibility for its own learning.

Storytelling

A true or fictitious narrative of an event or series of events. The world's oldest training technique. Stories instruct, inform, and entertain. Stories provide a frame of reference, act as directives for behavior, and teach specific lessons.

Symposium

A series of brief lectures on related topics presented by resource people. Each speaker presents only one aspect of the topic. A moderator often summaries. Learners may ask questions afterward. A rather structured, formal method.

Syndicate

Learners are subdivided into teams of three to six people to perform an assigned task or project with a specific product or result.

Team Teaching

More than one instructor trains the group at one time. Instructors generally have slightly different skills, views, or styles. Instructors cue each other and stimulate audience reactions.

Trigger

An incident, used as training begins, in order to arouse interest and generate discussion. May be a film, role play, tape, demonstration, or controversial statement.

Tutorial

A one-on-one process in which the instructor works directly with the learner, who learns through demonstration and practice followed by guidance and feedback. It takes place in a training environment rather than on the job. The instructor may either be the leader or an advanced learner. Tutorials are used to provide individualized assistance and to teach highly complex skills.

Vestibule Training

A private place is set aside in the work area to allow training in an off-line, but highly realistic, environment. Designed to bring the learner up to standard quickly before allowing on-line production. A compromise between classroom and on-the-job training.

Workshop

A participative session that puts greater emphasis on skill development than on presentations by the leader. Learners work to develop skills, produce a product, or solve a problem with guidance from the instructor.
Appendix B

Answers to the Review Questions

 (1) Sequence B

(2)	a. Critical observation of the trainee b. Analysis of what the trainee is doing c. Intervening as needed to tactfully correct the trainee d. Giving an occasional word of praise

(3) No

(4) A principle is several concepts linked together.

(5) A job aid is a quick reference guide used by workers who need a quick reminder of how to do something, particularly
something that is not done often.